Mechanisms of hormone resistance: lessons from insulin-resistant patients.

Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands and transported to the target cell at which the hormone acts. The hormone binds to its receptor, thereby eliciting various biological responses within the target cell. Examples of disease mechanisms that function at the different stages in the development of the insulin receptor, and result in insulin resistance, are discussed in this review. Antibodies to insulin can impair delivery of the hormone to the target cell, and can desensitize that target cell to insulin action. In recent years, several genetic diseases have been identified that result from mutations in the genes encoding the relevant receptors. Studies of syndromes of insulin resistance provide illustrations of the multiple types of defects in receptor function that can generally cause hormone resistance (12, 13). For example, mutations in the receptor can decrease the number of receptors on the cell surface by inhibiting receptor biosynthesis, impairing receptor transport to the cell surface, or accelerating the rate of receptor degradation. Alternatively, mutations have been identified that decrease the affinity of insulin binding or inhibit receptor tyrosine kinase activity. In recent years, there has been considerable progress toward elucidating post-receptor mechanisms in the biochemical pathways of hormone action. At present, there are a limited number of examples of mutations in genes encoding proteins that function in this part of the pathway, but it seems likely that additional examples will be discovered in the future. It is likely that these insights into biochemical mechanisms of disease will ultimately lead to an improvement in our ability to treat human disease.