Evaluating health systems' efficiency towards universal health coverage: A data envelopment analysis.

To estimate the technical efficiency of health systems toward achieving universal health coverage (UHC) in 191 countries. We applied an output-oriented data envelopment analysis approach to estimate the technical efficiency of the health systems, including the UHC index (a summary measure that captures both service coverage and financial protection) as the output variable and per capita health expenditure, doctors, nurses, and hospital bed density as input variables. We used a Tobit simple-censored regression with bootstrap analysis to observe the socioeconomic and environmental factors associated with efficiency estimates. The global UHC index improved from the 2019 estimates, ranged from 48.4 (Somalia) to 94.8 (Canada), with a mean of 76.9 (std. dev.: ±12.0). Approximately 78.5% (150 of 191) of the studied countries were inefficient (ϕ < 1.0) with respect to using health system resources toward achieving UHC. By improving health system efficiency, low-income, lower-middle-income, upper-middle-income, and high-income countries can improve their UHC indices by 4.6%, 5.5%, 6.8%, and 4.1%, respectively, by using their current resource levels. The percentage of health expenditure spent on primary health care (PHC), governance quality, and the passage of UHC legislation significantly influenced efficiency estimates. Our findings suggests health systems inefficiency toward achieving UHC persists across countries, regardless of their income classifications and WHO regions, as well as indicating that using current level of resources, most countries could boost their progress toward UHC by improving their health system efficiency by increasing investments in PHC, improving health system governance, and where applicable, enacting/implementing UHC legislation.