Scavenging effect of oxidized biochar against the phytotoxicity of lead ions on hydroponically grown chicory: An anatomical and ultrastructural investigation.

To evaluate the scavenging effect of functionalized biochar against the phytotoxicity of Pb2+ , original biochar (O-B) was chemically oxidized with either HNO3 or KMnO4 to serve as biofilters (O-BF, HNO3 -BF and KMnO4 -BF) to hydroponically grown chicory (Cichorium intybus L. var. intybus). Plants subjected to Pb-stress showed various deteriorations in cell organelles including visible alterations in chloroplasts, malformations in plant cells, abnormalities in the mitochondrial system, inward invagination of cell walls, distortions in the plasma membrane, oversized vacuoles and irregular increase in plastoglobuli formation. In addition, disorganization in xylem and phloem tissues and numerous variations in the stomatal number, density and dimensions as well as stomata movement were noticeable in the abaxial leaf surface. Pb-stressed plants showed increments in root diameter, vascular cylinder and metaxylem vessels as well as an obvious increase in the thickness of cortex, intercellular aerenchyma and endodermis layer. Furthermore, a noticeable disturbance in macro-and micronutrient concentrations was recorded in Pb-stressed plants due to the defect in their water status. O-BF showed a limited scavenging effect against the phytotoxicity of Pb2+ . However, oxidized biochar filters (particularly KMnO4 -BF) recorded a noticeable safeguard effect due to their high affinity to Pb2+ ions. The higher sorption capacity of KMnO4 -BF reduced the concentration of Pb in leaf tissues compared to the unequipped filtration treatment (117 vs. 19 µg g-1 ). In conclusion, data of this hydroponic study provides baseline information regarding the detoxification mechanisms of functionalized biochar against the phytotoxicity of trace elements.