Prospective health associations of drive for muscularity in young adult males.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to estimate prospective associations of drive for muscularity measured in 2013 and related health outcomes (depressive symptoms, overeating, binge eating, purging, binge drinking, and use of muscle-building products [e.g., creatine and steroids]) measured in 2014.

METHOD: The data come from a U.S. national large prospective cohort study, the Growing Up Today Study (GUTS) and included 2,460 males aged 18-32 years. Muscularity concerns were assessed with The Drive for Muscularity Scale (item responses ranging from 1 = Never to 6 = Always), which measures the degree of the respondents' preoccupation with increasing their muscularity.

RESULTS: Gay and bisexual males presented with higher drive for muscularity compared to heterosexual males (β = 0.30, 95% CI = 0.17, 0.43, p < .0001). Prospective analysis using generalized estimating equations indicated that each unit increase in drive for muscularity was associated with increased odds of exhibiting significant depressive symptoms (OR = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.05-1.44, p = .01), binge drinking (OR = 1.21, 95% CI = 1.02-1.45, p = .03), dieting (OR = 1.17, 95% CI = 1.01, 1.35, p = .04), and use of muscle-building products (OR = 4.49, 95% CI = 3.74, 5.40, p < .0001).

DISCUSSION: The drive for muscularity appears to be relatively prevalent across adolescence and early adulthood in males and is associated with broad and substantial health consequences. Muscularity-oriented concerns should be carefully considered when assessing and treating males with body image dissatisfaction.