Metabolic Susceptibility of 2-Chlorothioxanthone and Its Toxic Effects on mRNA and Protein Expression and Activities of Human CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 Enzymes.

Thioxanthones (TXs) are photoinitiators widely used in UV curable resins and food packaging, and their residues have been frequently detected in human bodies. Our current understanding of the susceptibility of residual TXs to metabolism and their effects on human health is very limited. The in vitro metabolism of TXs and its toxic effects on cytochrome P450 (CYP) (the key xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes) were examined in this study. 2-Chlorothioxanthone (2-Cl-TX) significantly inhibited the enzymatic activities of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 with IC50 of 8.36 and 0.86 μM, respectively. The exposure to 2-Cl-TX at 2.5 μM up-regulated the mRNA expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4 in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells to 3.03-fold and 2.02-fold, respectively. 2-Cl-TX at 2.5 μM caused 2.19-fold and 1.98-fold overexpression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4, respectively. In vitro studies revealed that 2-Cl-TX was biotransformed into two metabolites through the sulfoxidation of the sulfur atom, or via the hydroxylation of aromatic carbon. Results from this study, including the metabolic susceptibility of residual 2-Cl-TX, the proposed metabolites and the significant toxic effect on the activities, mRNA, and protein expression of CYP1A2 and CYP3A4, are vital to the human health and safety risk assessment from this ubiquitous xenobiotic.