Apis mellifera (Insecta: Hymenoptera) in the target of neonicotinoids: A one-way ticket? Bioinsecticides can be an alternative.

The recent decline of Apis mellifera populations around the world has been subject of intense research due to ecological and economic damages resulting from the loss of pollination services. The intensive use of insecticides from the neonicotinoids group is among the possible causal factors of this decline, including also sub-lethal effects. However, the use of synthetic insecticides has been increased on a global scale in the recent decades. In order to evaluate an alternative to the use of neonicotinoids, this work investigated the effects of a bioinsecticide and its major compound on A. mellifera (Apidae: Hymenoptera), one of the main pollinators of crop plants. For this, bees were exposed, by contact and ingestion, to the essential oil of Cymbopogon martinii (Poaceae: Poales), to geraniol (major compound) and the insecticide imidacloprid to evaluate the toxicity and behavioral effects as well as the locomotion changes and immune responses of bees treated with these compounds. In general, toxicity was greater through ingestion and the insecticide imidacloprid was more toxic to A. mellifera compared to the essential oil and its major compound. The individual and collective behaviors (i.e. trophallaxis, grooming, avoidance) as well as the immune responses of bees were not significantly affected by bioinsecticides. However, the locomotion response and flight orientation of the bees were significantly altered by insecticide when administered by ingestion. Our results highlight the potential of C. martinii essential oil and its major compound as a possible alternative to mitigate the harmful effects of neonicotinoids on bees.