Methods for Assessing Long-Term Exposures to Outdoor Air Pollutants.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Epidemiological studies of health effects of long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution rely on different exposure assessment methods. This review discusses widely used methods with a special focus on new developments.

RECENT FINDINGS: New data and study designs have been applied, including satellite measurements of fine particles and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ). The methods to apply satellite data for epidemiological studies are improving rapidly and have already contributed significantly to national-, continental- and global-scale models. Spatiotemporal models have been developed allowing more detailed temporal resolution compared to spatial models. The development of hybrid models combining dispersion models, satellite observations, land use and surface monitoring has improved models substantially. Mobile monitoring designs to develop models for long-term UFP exposure have been conducted. Methods to assess long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution have improved significantly over the past decade. Application of satellite data and mobile monitoring designs is promising new methods.