Reprint of "Biomonitoring of genotoxic effects for human exposure to nanomaterials: The challenge ahead".

Exposures to nanomaterials (NMs), with their specific physico-chemical characteristics, are likely to increase over the next years, as their production for industrial, consumer and medical applications is steadily rising. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the implementation of human biomonitoring studies of genotoxic effects after NM exposures in order to monitor and assure safety for workers and the general population. In this review, most commonly used biomarkers of early genetic effects were analyzed for their adequacy after NM exposures. A more in depth analysis of the ex vivo/in vitro lymphocyte MN assay was performed, although, in literature no studies are available using this assay for NM exposures. Therefore, the known factors determining the NMs tissue/cellular targets and the multiplicity of modes of action of NMs were summarized. The main pending questions are whether (1) lymphocytes are a NM target or an adequate surrogate tissue, (2) whether the buccal MN assay might be more suitable for NM exposures via inhalation or ingestion, as buccal cells might be exposed more directly. While the current state-of-the-art does not allow for drawing firm conclusions, major research gaps are identified and some cautious recommendations can be formulated. Therefore in vitro and in vivo studies should be conducted comparing methodologies side-by-side in the same subjects and for different types of NMs. The ex vivo/in vitro MN assay in its automated version, allowing objective analysis of large cohorts and detection of direct and indirect genotoxic effects, remains a valuable candidate for human biomonitoring to NM exposure. Considering the potential cancer risk from exposure to NMs and previous dramatic experiences with too late surveillance of occupational exposures to similar substances (e.g. to asbestos), there is an urgent need to define and implement adequate scientifically sound biomonitoring methods and programme for exposure to NMs.